OBSERVARE

Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Spring 2011), pp. 27-43

EUROPE’S FIGHT FOR SPACE – A NEW CHALLENGE

Ana Baltazar

Major at the Portuguese Air Force and Professor at the Institute of High Military Studies (IESM).

She holds a postgraduate qualification leading to the Master Degree in Peace and War Studies in

New International Relations (UAL) and a graduate Diploma in Project Management (Catholic

University).She completed the Air War General Course (IESM) and the High Joint Command

Course (IESM). She has acted as Deputy for Logistics on the Air Force High Command, as

Manager of the Aircraft Instruction Acquisition Program. She represented the Portuguese Air

Force at OGMA, SA, and Planned the modification of F-16 aircrafts.

Abstract

The present article examines the challenge Europe faces with regard to space exploration. It

advances some technical concepts associated with space exploration and key concepts for our

understanding of International Relations – particularly Astropolitics - in a milieu that many see

as placatory, but where competition and cooperation go hand in hand, and where military and

civilian capacities are often blurred.

Indeed, on the one hand space has its specific characteristics – natural resources, artificial

resources (for instance, satellites), dimension, and range with regard to the earth – which

makes it a target for commercial and military dispute and may lead to inevitable escalating

space armament. On the other hand, there is a need for cooperation and agreement to enable

the development of extremely complex technology, which requires vast human, material, and

financial resources.

Whether associated with military space capacities or civil space capacities, one observes that

today’s e dependence on those resources leads to the need to ensure their security. Control of

space, the same as with control of sea, land, and air resources, can be vital to guarantee

national security, in the first place, and, consequently, international security. How the

European Union is doing it, or will be able to do it, is included in the study undertaken in the

present essay. To this effect, it is necessary to know Europe’s space capacities, policies and

strategies.

The following question is raised at the end of this article: How does Europe’s space

exploration interfere with international security?

Keywords

Competition; Cooperation; Space; Security; European Union

How to cite this article

Baltazar, Ana (2011). "Europe’s fight for space – a new challenge”. JANUS.NET e-journal of

International Relations, Vol. 2, N.º 1, Spring 2011. Consulted [online] on date of last visit,

observare.ual.pt/janus.net/en_vol2_n1_art3.

Article received in April 2010 and accepted for publication in May 2011

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Spring 2011), pp. 27-43

Europe’s fight for space – a new challenge

Ana Baltazar

EUROPE’S FIGHT FOR SPACE – A NEW CHALLENGE

Ana Baltazar

Introduction

The present article is part of a master degree dissertation I completed in 2009 with the

same title. Besides studying the European Union (EU), the thesis looked at the most

prominent countries’ policies and capacities in space technology development: China,

Russia, and the USA. Technical concepts associated with the topic were equally

addressed, such as the notion of astropolitics, space strength and power, dual use, and

threat.

“Europe’s Fight for Space – A New Challenge“invites reflection because it is a fact that,

nowadays, contemporary societies depend on space resources and on their

applications. Increasingly, more countries have satellites built and launched by third

parties. In general, those satellites have civil and military multiple functions, ranging

from facilitating communications and weather forecasting, to obtaining concrete

information for navigation purposes. This awareness of dependence on resources

required major powers, in particular, to think about space security. During the last

conflicts, space resources have had a major influence on military operations. This

influence is basically felt at the level of decision-making time and military response,

making everything – decisions/actions – quicker.

During conflicts, available space resources are typically plentiful and quite varied, of

which the following stand out: weather forecast systems: military communication

systems; surveillance systems; weapon positioning and missile launching satellites; and

positioning systems, among others. For the Armed Forces, satellites are power

multipliers and essential tools serving the “Command, Control, Communications,

Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance” (C

ISR).

As this article illustrates, having capacity brings on power, and to have power brings on

capacities to influence decisions on the international stage. However, having the

resources and lacking the capacity to defend them may translate into extreme

vulnerability. Accordingly, space resources gain strategic importance as they may both

offer essential and unique information and put national security at risk.

Therefore, the space issue has a civil element (connected with the distinct aspects of

world security, the well-being of the population, and the scientific development of

humanity) and a military dimension (supporting defence and a high number of military

operations) that often merge in terms of dual use.

The topic “Europe’s Fight for Space – a New Challenge“ is examined precisely

around those points. This challenge Europe is facing is analysed in terms of

opportunities/advantages at distinct levels: economic, military and political. It must be

stressed that this article focuses mostly on the EU as a whole and on its global policies

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Spring 2011), pp. 27-43

Europe’s fight for space – a new challenge

Ana Baltazar

framed by the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP), and not on each country’s

individual policies. A SWOT analysis – management tool meaning Strengths,

Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats - was carried out to assess the capacities of the

EU.

The research method used was that advanced by Luc Van Champenhoudt and Raymond

Quivy (Quivy, 2005) for the Social Sciences. The reflection behind this article aimed to

answer the Initial Question: How does Europe’s space exploration interfere with

international security?

1. Space

Definition of Space

To define or delimit land and sea environments – or even air space with regard to the

former two – was simple, insofar as the separation is physically perceptible. When it

comes to space, the situation is quite different, to the extent that the international

community has not yet agreed on the definition of outer space (or sidereal space). This

is mostly due to the fact that it has not been possible to distinguish between air space

and outer space. However, it is important to have an internationally acknowledged

concept, as there are issues associated both with security and the sovereignty of

countries.

In terms of space definition, the present article adopts a definition which, albeit not

formally accepted

, is the one that attracts largest consensus among the scientific

community, and which was coined by Von Karman (Chun, 2006: 14) in 1957: space

starts at the height of 100km (already in the Thermosphere) above the surface of the

earth. Accordingly, it is above the Von Karman line that the several types of orbits

started to be defined, which are called as follows (Dolman, 2006: 65): LEO (Low Earth

Orbit), MEO (Medium Earth Orbit), HAO (High Altitude Orbit), and HEO (Highly Elliptical

Orbit).

Knowledge of orbits and orbital mechanics is crucial, given that, after objects have

been placed on stable orbits, they practically require no fuel or power in order to stay

there (apart from some power to be able to correct the orbit in the presence of

disturbances).

Objects in Space

As mentioned previously, and although we are still at an embryonic stage of knowledge

of space potentialities, various forms of space exploration already exist, and precious

information obtained from devices placed in space is equally used. This information is

acquired from several types of equipment, ranging from satellites to space probes and

manned space stations.

With regard to satellites, it can be said that they can be any type of object orbiting the

Earth or any other planet. Satellites can be of two sorts: natural and artificial. The

former are celestial bodies, of which the moon is the best known: the latter are

The doubt favours a certain degree of political and legal flexibility with regard to the flying of space

objects over the air space (or not) of another nation.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Spring 2011), pp. 27-43

Europe’s fight for space – a new challenge

Ana Baltazar

manufactured and put into orbit by humans. Generally speaking, an artificial satellite is

an information transfer vehicle.

On 31 December 2007, there were 3.208

identified satellites in orbit from a wide

variety of countries (Portugal only has one entirely its own, launched in 1993 and

currently inoperative), with Russia having the highest number (42%), followed by the

USA (31%). Europe only has 7% of satellites (MEHURON, 2009: 60).

Probes (a total of 119) are unmanned space shuttles with the mission of, for instance,

exploring other planets. Here the USA has the highest number (51%), followed by

Russia (29%) and by Europe (7%) (MEHURON, 2009: 60).

Space stations are structures transported into space by other means, devised to have

human beings on board. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was the first

country to develop this type of programmes in the 1970s, namely with the Salyut. The

International Space Station has been in space since October 2000, and on 15 June

2010, it completed its twenty fourth journey (carrying on board one Russian and two

North-Americans).

Besides the objects referred to above, there is also a large number of objects known as

space debris (about 30.342 objects have been identified

). These objects are crucial,

because they can cause serious damage to orbiting satellites and stations, and to

astronauts. One of the ways satellites can protect themselves, to some extent, from

space debris is to use protection shields. However, these measures make satellites

heavier and more expensive.

Treaties

From a juridical viewpoint, and as opposed to air space, space is open to everyone

(Couteau-Begarie, 2003: 865).

The United Nations (UN) has been working intensely, in terms of framing legislation, on

issues related with space use, with particular emphasis on attempts for non-

militarisation of the area. The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, with

headquarters in Vienna, is the only body working on that legislation. Since its inception,

it has completed five legal instruments and five sets of regulatory principles on, for

instance, appropriation of outer space and arms control activities (UNOOSA, 2007).

Generally speaking, all of these instruments promote the idea that research and

activities in space, or space-related, must be carried out in collaboration with other

nations and from a general well-being stance.

The Outer Space Treaty (OST) was the first treaty to act as a reference for the legal

analysis of space activities. It sets out the core legal principles and prohibitions

pertaining to space. The two first articles establish the basic structure, stating that

nations have the freedom to undertake scientific research in outer space, and that

space and outer celestial bodies (such as the moon) are no one’s property. Articles 3

and 4 basically limit space military activities. The treaty legislates that the moon and

similar celestial bodies can only be used for peaceful ends, and cannot be equipped

Not all of them are necessarily operational.

“SATCAT Boxscore” http://www.celestrak.com/satcat/boxscore.asp acceded on 8 June 2010.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Spring 2011), pp. 27-43

Europe’s fight for space – a new challenge

Ana Baltazar

with military bases or used for arms testing. However, they can be used for scientific

research or peaceful exploration (UNOOSA, 2002).

Astropolitics

Astropolitics is a relatively recent concept that relates outer space and related

technology with the development of political, military and strategic guidelines (Dolman,

2006: 15).

This article follows the astropolitical model proposed by the North American military

strategist Everett C. Dolman, for whom astropolitics is a major strategy that is not just

limited to the enforcement of military force, encompassing also diplomacy, propaganda,

secret operations, information, and economic transactions (Dolman, 2006: 146). The

earth is reduced to being a single part of a total approach which, albeit important, in

some cases is just a peripheral part (Dolman, 2006: 1) with important astropolitical

characteristics (Dolman, 2006: 61): its mass, orbit and interactions with other

phenomena. According to Dolman, humanity is entering the age whereby technology,

communications, innovation, and the exploration of outer space are the routes to

prosperity and abundance. His thesis is a realistic approach that maximizes space

prospecting and exploration for the benefit of everyone, reversing the international

trend of mistrust in space exploration (Dolman, 2006: 183).

This author also defends that the militarisation of space by a military force that is

recognized, non-arbitrary, efficient and able to keep its effective control may, on the

one hand, and by means of discouragement, prevent a space arms race; on the other

hand, given that military space programmes are the backbone of many civilian space

operations (for instance, launching capacity), they foster economic advantages in fields

such as telecommunications, navigation and weather satellites (Dolman, 2006: 162).

The author affirms that astropolitics is divided into four interrelating astropolitical

regions (Dolman, 2006: 69): earth, earth space, lunar space, and solar space.

According to this model, it is possible to predict a power relationship in search of world

supremacy. Those who are able to control astropolitical regions will be in a position to

use economic coercion measures that are relevant in some related fields, such as

commercial routes or the control of resources, or those of a military nature, with regard

to operations on earth. In more recent conflicts, controlling communication,

observation and location satellites allowed North Americans and allies to have an

advantage in the operations carried out.

2. Europe

Europe’s Space Strategy

Europe has recognised that space has an important strategic dimension (ESDA, 2008).

Space resources are military centres of gravity that need to be protected, inasmuch as

they are potential targets. An attack on the space system of a particular country may

render its armed forces blind, deaf and mute. However, the EU is not in a position (and

not particularly interested in it) to have a predominant role in space. Accordingly, arms

control is not a viable option, given the costs associated with it and the polemics it

would generate internally. Therefore, and due to the fact it might fall prey of arms

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Spring 2011), pp. 27-43

Europe’s fight for space – a new challenge

Ana Baltazar

control by other countries, on 3 December 2008 the Council of the European Union

publicly announced a draft document on space code of conduct it intends to present to

other world nations. Basically, the EU aims to render space weapons free, thus

becoming a pioneer in how to address this issue. This document also refers to the

importance of space technology for the development of economies, societies and the

culture of nations. Nonetheless, it is acknowledged that space capacities are vital for

national security and for the maintenance of peace and international security.

Accordingly, it calls upon international agreements to, among other things, guarantee

the following: influence the safe and peaceful use of space with established rules – as

long as it is used for peaceful means – ensuring freedom of access to space; preserve

the safety and integrity of space objects in orbit.

This initiative aims to demonstrate that Europe is an important strategic player in

space-related issues. It is hoped that this will be a viable option, but it will be so only if

major space powers accept it, which will not be easy. This code aims, among other

things, to regulate anti-satellite tests and the production of space debris.

Europe’s space capacity

France was responsible for the launching of 122 (Figure A) of the 376 commercial

satellites currently in orbit, that is, 32% (33% were launched by Russia and 24% by

the USA). According to Figure A, there were also military (11%) and governmental

(10%) satellite launches. These launches – mostly (89%) in GEO – were carried out at

the Guiana Space Centre using various types of Ariane launchers.

Figure A – Satellites launched by France

Source: (UCS, 2009)

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Spring 2011), pp. 27-43

Europe’s fight for space – a new challenge

Ana Baltazar

With regard to satellites owned by EU countries - not necessarily launched or produced

by them - 114 satellites out of a total of 888 are currently operational. Most of these

satellites are in LEO (43.9%) and GEO (45.6 %), orbits, while a small number are in

MEO (2.6%) and HEO (7.9%) orbits (Figure B).

Figure B – European satellites launched by class of orbit

Source: (UCS, 2009)

Figure C shows that, generally speaking, it is from 1999 onwards that satellites not

exclusively of the commercial type started to be most widely used. Strictly commercial

satellites in operation continue to be the highest in number (42%). However, after that

date there has been a wider diversity of applications, of which the 21% that are strictly

military stand out, belonging for the most part to the United Kingdom, France and

Germany (for communication, surveillance, reconnaissance and ELINT purposes).

Figure C – European satellites launched, by all types of users

Source: (UCS, 2009)

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Spring 2011), pp. 27-43

Europe’s fight for space – a new challenge

Ana Baltazar

Of those European 114 satellites in operation, only 15 (between 1990 and 2009) belong

to the European Space Agency (ESA) or are owned in partnership (a research satellite

launched into HEO with China, a scientific one launched into LEO with the USA, and a

space physics satellite launched into HEO with the USA and Russia). As Figure D

indicates, they are basically governmental ones, and none is military.

Figure D – Satellites belonging to ESA

Source: (UCS, 2009)

The analysis of Europe’s space capacities shows duplication of efforts on the part of

European countries, with some of them even conducting autonomous development

policies, which leads to duplication in some areas, particularly with regard to

observation and communication satellites

SWOT analysis

This paragraph presents a SWOT analysis of EU’s space technology, based on the

contents of previous paragraphs and on the dissertation that generated the present

article.

1) Strengths

 Political ambition:

− Gain and maintain independent access to space

− Have influence on the international space arena

 EDA/ESA Partnerships

 Broad range of programmes, with associated predominance of high

technologies:

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Spring 2011), pp. 27-43

Europe’s fight for space – a new challenge

Ana Baltazar

− Scientific

− Meteorological

− Navigation (Galileo)

− Environmental (Global Monitoring and Environmental Security - GMES)

 Own launching station at the French Guiana

 Competitive in the commercial sector

 Capacity for meteorological monitoring and environmental control

 Space industry

2) Weaknesses

 Asymmetric capacities among the various countries (France and Germany stand

out from the rest)

 Lack of capacity to carry out manned space missions

 Not competitive in the launching sector

 Absence of an European identity

 Absence of doctrine on European Space Security

 European countries have autonomous space programmes

 Diverse and diverging interests interfere on decisions about joint projects (for

instance, early-warning mechanisms)

 Economic capacity/investment

 Public acceptability of investments associated with dual-use space programmes

3) Opportunities

 International affirmation:

− Prestige

− Credibility

− Intervention on world political decisions

 Control of other countries’ capacities by cooperating with them

 Technological and economic development

 Dual-use technologies

 Complementarity of capacities and information

 Galileo project

 Partnerships through:

− Cost sharing

− Knowledge sharing

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Spring 2011), pp. 27-43

Europe’s fight for space – a new challenge

Ana Baltazar

− Information sharing

 Foster global economy

 Employment in the space sector

4) Threats

 Dual-use thanks to control difficulties

 Technological dependence on third parties

 Dependence on access to information

 Unawareness of the intentions of some of the players

 Armament capable of destroying space resources

 Space debris

 Knowledge transfer to potential commercial or political opponents

 Difficulty in attaining world agreement on early-warning mechanisms

 China, Russia and the USA in commercial (competition) and security terms

(chance of control and destruction of space capacities)

The SWOT analysis leads us to conclude that to have space power, that is, to have the

space resources that act as multipliers for existing forces, will give the EU the capacity

to influence other international players, namely in such important issues as the

regulation of space activities. In addition, to have space power may turn Europe into a

gravity centre capable of attracting major partners in terms of cooperation, thus

increasing the capabilities and feasibility of new projects. In order to address

challenges involving space, Europe may bring together several issues that will

guarantee diplomatic, economic, military, and cultural advantages, namely: have

access to space, be competitive, have global navigation systems, have the means to

explore space, have space scientific capacity, and capacity to manage space traffic.

With regard to security, there are, in fact, two types of possible threats: on the one

hand, non-intentional ones (incidents and accidents provoked by, for instance, space

debris); on the other, space armament. As it develops its space capacities and

potential, the EU can and ought to be influential in the international space policy debate

to ensure a peaceful environment in space.

3. Dispute over Space

The European challenge

The study of space challenge facing the EU can be done from several viewpoints,

namely military, economic and political.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Spring 2011), pp. 27-43

Europe’s fight for space – a new challenge

Ana Baltazar

Military viewpoint

Guaranteeing that existing space military systems are safe and serve the needs they

are intended for is not an objective one hundred per cent attainable, but is definitely a

challenge because of its relevance. This is even more so when the threat is

unpredictable due to the variety of situations that may lead to damage or loss of those

systems. Early-warning systems capable of detecting any type of threat may be one of

the means to prevent or control those situations. It is equally necessary to ensure the

existence of alternatives, for instance, in case a blackout in the systems used by the

military forces should take place.

From a military perspective, the EU should, as much as possible, foster cooperation in

military space technology development. Internal cooperation allows cost reduction, and

external cooperation guarantees, besides a reduction in costs, the sharing of

technology and knowledge of what others – sometimes opponents or competitors – are

developing. Thus, within an organisation where there is no interest whatsoever in

encouraging conflict, it is through military cooperation that, to some extent, other

players can be kept in control. This stance, as long as it is well coordinated, may serve

the interests of the EU in its security and defence policies, materialized in the European

Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) and in the missions the latter carries out,

particularly in conflicts outside its area, where the support of space resources is

determinant for the accomplishment of the mission, of which supporting the C

ISR

figures prominently.

Economic viewpoint

The EU’s approach is more market oriented. Space technology plays a key role in the

development of the national economy, for which reason it should be included in EU’s

ambitions. As referred to previously, space programmes lead to technological

development which, in turn, fosters industrialization, the latter encouraging economic

development. Making the space sector competitive is an objective of the EU and of

some of the countries that comprise it. This can be achieved through cooperation with

other countries, but market niches should be found to guarantee that Europe can make

a difference.

It is equally important to ensure budgets that support complex projects and to secure

the agreement of EU countries. Therefore, it should look out for projects that are

necessary for the organization and that are feasible within the time frame and the costs

agreed at the outset. This challenge also involves the credibility of the EU in the

international order.

Political viewpoint

The first political challenge the EU has to address is to bring together the individual

policies of each country and produce a common space political project that is accepted

and adhered to by all, without parallel individual projects. Indeed, current trends point

to two routes: on the one hand, space policy is carried out on a national basis and is

associated with the policy of each country, the defence policy being even more

nationalistic; on the other hand, civilian space technologies have been developed

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Spring 2011), pp. 27-43

Europe’s fight for space – a new challenge

Ana Baltazar

according to a common European approach, whereby ESA has been playing a

preponderant role, as it brought to its remit a large part of the projects, coordinating

and producing them. Having a common European space policy – civilian and military –

will make it possible to increase European global capabilities; share costs, and eliminate

or avoid duplication of space systems (the same type of function but belonging to

distinct European countries). In addition, the contribution of several European

countries, with their distinct fields of knowledge and interests – strengthens the global

contribution, which means that more and better can be achieved. As a result, the EU

would be able to reduce its dependence on other players. The Galileo system is an

example of a new European competence that will free the Europeans from reliance on

the North American Global Positioning System (GPS).

Then, it will be necessary to identify what is essential and which are the minimum

capacities the EU believes it should have in space in terms of security and defence.

There is no doubt that the EU must have independent means to, at least, be able to

communicate, observe, locate, obtain information, and early-warning. Space

technologies must be seen as decisive means of political support in the international

stage, where investment in technology may denote independent decision and capacity

control.

International Security

This article demonstrates that space security needs are connected with space

technology. Whereas space resources should be used to protect the population,

resources and territories, they also have the purpose of maintaining actual

technological structures (on Earth and in Space). These systems offer extremely

versatile solutions at an international level. Nowadays, societies depend on those

solutions in distinct ways, which makes protecting them a matter of national security

and, in the case of Europe, of European security. In effect, the space sector helps

define the EU’s concept of security, both in terms of its contribution to the security of

citizens and of the path one wants to take in technological development.

In its documents on space technology, the EU’s approach is more civilian oriented than

military. The actual ESA stated, from the onset, that its mission has peaceful purposes.

The European security policy is based on the principle of “helping to ensure security

and defend stability”. In turn, this goes hand in hand with the political orientation of

non-aggression in technology use. However, it is thanks to initiatives like the Global

Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES), which gives priority to the general

security of citizens, that European space policy – in its civilian facet – is brought closer

to Europe’s defence. This type of development shows how new space technologies

represent a new stride in the political process where, besides increasing capacities, a

new common political project is being fostered.

It is a fact that European governments need to have new military capacities to be able

to meet all the objectives set out by the ESDP, namely the Petersberg tasks. Space

technology may be a means of achieving it without having to develop major capacities,

that is, without the requirement to invest. With regard to space technology, the EU is

faced with three possible scenarios: firstly, it may become an active participant in the

arms race; secondly, it may play a passive role, that is, be an extra that does not

intervene whatsoever in events; thirdly, it may become the main player in the

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Spring 2011), pp. 27-43

Europe’s fight for space – a new challenge

Ana Baltazar

development of space technology and of norms advocating prevention. It seems that

the last scenario was chosen, as there have been efforts to make international

agreements regulating activities in Space. The code of conduct, for example, is

important because it may foster international cooperation, economic growth,

exploration, and, simultaneously, reduce the risk of incidents, making space safer.

In the absence of this kind of regulation, the chance of space armament increases,

satellites are exposed to higher risks and space debris expands. This type of agreement

may also facilitate the control of dual-use materials. This creates a climate of

unawareness of capacities and mistrust of countries’ intentions, which may render an

escalade in arms race inevitable. However, it is most advisable that the Europeans

demonstrate internationally that they have a position and an identity in what concerns

space security, in line with their values, objectives and policies. Nevertheless, it is

equally paramount that the role they will play is guided by the intentions expressed in

the European Security Strategy, based on multiculturalism, cooperation, diplomacy, in

the combination of military and civilian resources, and in the promotion of Rule of Law

Nations.

In fact, over the last few years, the EU has shown a serious and independent mind

about space security. This attitude stems from the awareness that, for the time being,

it does not have the means to figure prominently, in military terms, in space, and

probably it has no intention to do so. However, this does not imply it does not have

military resources in space, as some European countries have developed military

satellites (observation and telecommunication, amongst others) in the knowledge that

space weapons are not part of the EU’s strategy. A strategy leading to an arms race

would be too radical to be developed on a national basis, and too sensitive to be

developed in partnership.

Generally speaking, it is wise to protect resources, as well as to stop the propagation of

any technology that may be a potential threat to space resources. Any type of

technology that is developed to attack space resources would be extremely harmful to

the EU, given it could destroy civilian and military satellites. Nonetheless, the

development of space capacities alternative to existing ones, mostly North American, is

another contribution to security that the EU should explore. In short, to answer the

initial question “How does Europe’s space exploration interfere with

international security?” reading Figure E is hereby suggested, as it aims to

systematize the reflections proposed in this article. The objective (target) to be

attained is to maintain space’s security, in that security (at the centre of the target)

presupposes there is no possibility for space armament and that the threat posed by

space debris is reduced. Therefore, and as a result of the previous analysis, it is

suggested that EU’s strategy (arrow) for European and international space security

follows a path that is influenced by the following guidelines:

− Development of European proposals for international agreements, through the

form of Treaties, Conventions and/or Codes of Conduct that basically favour the

transparency of space activities, encourage control of space debris, and foster

partnerships;

− Identification of a common space policy accepted by all EU countries that leads to

a clear recognition of the capabilities that are to be developed and on what terms;

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Spring 2011), pp. 27-43

Europe’s fight for space – a new challenge

Ana Baltazar

− Setting out the highest possible number of partnerships with other countries and

organisations (NATO) that may contribute to increased technological knowledge and

even add to knowledge of partners’ capacities (it may reduce the risk of hidden

agendas);

− Make efforts to fund projects deemed crucial for the security of the EU and,

consequently, for international security.

Figure E – Graphic representation of space security

The four guidelines must, as a whole, confer the EU the technical robustness it needs

to have in order to, in the first place, be independent from North-American power in

technological terms: in second place, it needs to have space power. This space power

may be used as a political tool to influence the management of the future of space,

that is, space technology that supports the EU’s security and defence policies.

The conclusion that can be drawn from this article is that a space arms race and the

inherent possibility it may turn into a battle field can be avoided. Everybody as a lot to

lose, but those with the highest capacities are also the most fragile.

This may be the ideal moment to stop escalating space arms race, whose effect, while

not necessarily as lethal as others, may affect the everyday life of civilian and military

populations and surely shake international security.

Conclusions

This article has focused on the topic “Europe’s fight for space – a new challenge”.

Our readings suggest that advancement in space can pose new challenges to

International Relations, as the quest for controlling access to particular resources

SPACE SECURITY

International Agreements

Common Space Policy pacial Comum

Partnerships

Investment

Technical

Robustness

Political

Robustness

Space Power

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Spring 2011), pp. 27-43

Europe’s fight for space – a new challenge

Ana Baltazar

increases, new commercial opportunities in space arise, which may influence the

military use of space, and as space power gains added value. In fact, history tells us

that explored and occupied frontiers by human beings have (and are), at some point

been subject to conflict. The question here is whether space will escape this trend.

The research behind the present article started from the presupposition that space is a

challenging field for Europe as it aims to grow from a political and economic viewpoint.

However, like Director General António Rodotá of ESA stated in November 2001, “We

are still at the dawn of the space age”. Space exploration – although it was part of

collective imagination in the past – is effectively just over 50 years old, and is a field

that is still unknown in many ways.

Currently, to have space technology, knowing how to process received information and

use it, is a new source of power. Space power, through its many capacities, becomes a

power multiplier in military terms. Systems protection, information management and

processing to validate it and make it decisive are pivotal to space technology use.

Anticipating events may prevent conflicts, reduce attacks and avoid mistakes.

The EU, the key player in this study, possesses important space capacities in the

international context. However, some of them belong to countries that are part of it,

and are not effective capacities of the Union.

The distinct approach of European countries, particularly EU members, leads to

duplication of capacities and to limitations in the development of certain programmes,

due to shortage of financial resources and agreement with regard to their need. The

reason for this lies, in part, in the fact that those countries deal with their own security

independently and not as part of a global European vision.

The projects that the EU is currently undertaking – Galileo navigation system, the

GMES environmental surveillance system and space launch developing – make the EU

technologically independent from other countries. Independence is clearly beneficial in

terms of security – albeit the existence of civilian programmes – and also in economic

terms, as they foster the development and internal growth of the organisation. These

new capacities stemming from space technology strengthen the organisation in

economic terms and may confer the EU the power it needs to be influential in space-

related issues.

The current dispute is not, at least for the time being, an armed fight, but is an

economic and political dispute. The EU (or the countries it comprises) has, generally

speaking, primary goals that encourage it to invest in these technological fields, such

as: attain technological independence, develop economically, expand the capacity and

credibility of space programmes, and cooperate.

The challenge the EU has to face is how to have a common civilian and military space

policy. Subsequently, it needs to identify what is essential and decide on the strategy to

attain it.

It is through international agreements, a common European space policy,

partnerships, and funding that the EU will be in a position to contribute to a free and

peaceful space. Accordingly, like with nuclear weaponry, the effects caused by the use

of space weaponry may be excessive at a time when scientific exploration is still more

important than military exploration.

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Spring 2011), pp. 27-43

Europe’s fight for space – a new challenge

Ana Baltazar

Bibliography

Books

CHUN, Clayton K. S. (2006). Defending Space - US Anti-Satellite warfare ans Space

Weaponry. Oxford: Opsprey Punlishing.

COUTEAU-BEGARIE, Hervé (2003). Traité de Stratégie. Paris: Institut de Stratégie

Comparée.

DOLMAN, Everett C. (2006). Astropolitik – Classical Geopolitics in the Space Age.

London: Frank Cass Publishers.

DOUGHERTY, James E., PFALTZGRAFF, Robert L. Jr. (2003). Relações Internacionais:

As teorias em confronto. Lisboa: Gradiva.

QUIVY, Raymond, CHAMPENHOUDT, Luc Van (2005). Manual de Investigação em

Ciências Sociais. Lisboa: Gradiva.

Electronic documents

CEC (2007). European Space Policy. In CEC, 26 April 2007 [Retrieved on 5 March

2008]. Available at

http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/space/doc_pdf/esp_comm7_0212_en.pdf

ESA (2008). The European Space Agency: A new actor in Security and Defence. In ESA

[Retrieved on 22 April 2008]. Available at

http://www.japcc.de/fileadmin/user_upload/events/Workshops/Space_workshop_2008/

Panel_1a_-_ESA_Presentation.pdf

ESDA (2008). Space systems for Europe's security: GMES and Galileo - reply to the

annual report of the Council. In ESDA, 4 June 2008 [Retrieved on 5 March 2009].

Available at

http://www.assemblyweu.org/en/documents/sessions_ordinaires/rpt/2008/2004.php#P

117_7619>

GENERAL SECRETARIAT (2008). Council conclusions and draft code of conduct fou

outer space activities. In Council of the European Union, 3 December 2008. [Retrieved

on 8 March 2009]. Available at

http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/08/st16/st16560.en08.pdf

MEHURON, Tamar A. (2009). Almanac. In Air Force Magazine, August 2008. [Retrieved

on 19 May 2010]. Available at

http://www.airforce-

magazine.com/Almanacs/Space%20Almanac/0808space.pdf

NARDON, Laurence (2009). Space Security: Europe takes the lead. In IFRI, 2009.

[Retrieved on 8 March 2009]. Available at

http://www.ifri.org/files/Espace/Nardon_note_coc_janvier2009.pdf

SPACE SECURITY (2008). Space Security 2008. In Space Security, August 2008.

[Retrieved on 10 March 2009]. Available at

http://www.spacesecurity.org/SSI2008.pdf

UCS (2009). Nuclear Weapons and global security. In Global Security, 2009. [consult.

em 10 May 2009]. Available at

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 2, n.º 1 (Spring 2011), pp. 27-43

Europe’s fight for space – a new challenge

Ana Baltazar

http://www.ucsusa.org/nuclear_weapons_and_global_security/space_weapons/technic

al_issues/ucs-satellite-database.html

UNOOSA (2002). Treaty on principles governing the activities of states in the

exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies. In

United Nations, 2002. [Retrieved on 20 December 2008]. Available at

http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/STSPACE11E.pdf

UNOOSA (2007). Journal Committee on the Peaceful uses of outer space. In United

Nations, 26 March to April 2007. [Retrieved on 12 November 2008]. Available at

http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/journal/lsc/lscj2007-06E.pdf