OBSERVARE

Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa

ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 1, n.º 1 (Autumn 2010), pp. 29-44

SECURITY AND SECURITY COMPLEX: OPERATIONAL CONCEPTS

Luís Tomé

Professor at Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa (UAL). Visiting Professor at the Portuguese War

College (IESM) and the Instituto de Defesa Nacional (IDN).

Scientific Coordinator of OBSERVARE and Deputy Director of JANUS.NET

PhD in International Relations by Coimbra’s University

Abstract

Security is one of the most ambiguous, contested, and debated ideas in the conceptual

framework of international relations. The "traditional" perspective has been severely

contested as new approaches develop, and the concept of security has been reworked in all

its fundamental components and dimensions, from object and reference to range and

security instruments. Likewise, the discussion over the definition and characterization of

international security systems, namely regarding competitive security, common security,

cooperative security, collective security, and security community, continues to be very

lively. Starting from these debates, and in the light of the current international situation, we

propose operational concepts of security and of security complex.

Keywords

Security; Security Complex; International Relations; Theory; Concepts

How to cite this article

Tomé, Luís (2010) "Security and security complex: operational concepts". JANUS.NET e-

journal of International Relations, N.º 1, Autumn 2010. Consulted [online] on date of the

last visit, observare.ual.pt/janus.net/en_vol1_n1_art3

Article received in August 2010 and accepted for publication in August 2010

JANUS.NET, e-journal of International Relations

ISSN: 1647-7251

Vol. 1, n.º 1 (Autumn 2010), pp. 29-44

Security and security complex: operational concepts

Luís Tomé

SECURITY AND SECURITY COMPLEX: OPERATIONAL CONCEPTS

Luís Tomé

Security continues to be a top concern, a major issue of debate in national, regional,

and global agendas. Likewise, it continues to require major resources and the sacrifice

of many lives. However, as societies and international relations change, the approach

to security also evolves. For that reason, security continues to be the focus of

discussion, and to be redesigned in all its components and major dimensions, from its

reference to international security systems. Starting from these debates, and in the

light of the current international situation, what we propose in this paper are

operational concepts of security and of security complex.

1. From "traditional security" to “new approaches"

A significant part of debates over security concerns the object it refers to and the range

it covers: What is the object of security and what entity must be protected (whose

security)? What are the nature and type of threats, risks, and challenges (security in

face of whom, or what)? What is the agent of security (security by whom) and with

what means (security instruments)? The respective concepts of security depend on how

one answers these questions.

In the realist perspective,1 according to which the international system is anarchical

and in a permanent state of competition and conflict, the State is not only the major

agent, but also the almost exclusive reference of security. In other words, it means

security by the State and for the State. In this light, the concepts of security focused,

for quite some time, around topics that James Wirtz (2007: 338) describes as high

politics: war and peace, diplomatic summits, nuclear dissuasion, weapons control,

military alliances, defence of "national interests" or, in other words, “national security”

and “international security” always perceived from the exclusive stance of the State. In

contrast, the topics of low politics (environment, energy, migratory flows,

overpopulation, health, underdevelopment, etc.), despite being regarded as sources of

problems, were seldom perceived as risks or threats to national or international

security.

1 Whenever, in this paper, we make reference to concept/approach/school/paradigm/ perspective/"realist"

vision, we consider its essence or fundamental and defining traits, without tending to the great diversity

and wealth of analysis it entails.

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On the other hand, security was always associated with the military dimension, often to

the exclusion of all others. There are even some authors who, like Richard Ullman, have

reversed their position, after initially advocating a more inclusive perspective. He, who

early on stated that "defining national security merely (or even primarily) in military

terms conveys a profoundly false image of reality [which] is doubly misleading and

therefore doubly dangerous" (Ullman, 1983: 129), later defended that "if national

security encompasses all serious and urgent threats to a nation-state and its citizens,

we will eventually find ourselves using a different term when we wish to make clear

that our subject is the threats that might be posed by the military force of other states.

The “war problem” is conceptually distinct from, say, problems like environmental

degradation or urban violence, which are better characterized as threats to well-being

(…) Labeling a set of circumstances as a problem of national security when it has no

likelihood of involving as part of the solution a state’s organs of violence accomplishes

nothing except obfuscation» (Ullman, 1995: 3-12). In fact, for a certain school of

thought, the relationship between security and the non-military dimensions is only

relevant when such elements are at the root of international conflict or have an impact

on war.

The traditional approach to security highly centred on the State, on the topics of high

politics and on the military instrument, has been severely contested. From the start,

the incapacity of the State in face of pressures it encounters "from above", "from

below", and "from within" (Tomé, 2003; 2004), becomes an issue. Other opinions,

which João Gomes Cravinho (2006: 256) portrays as "hyperglobalistic", suggest that

the State is about to become irrelevant as a deciding entity or, simply, that it no longer

is an adequate structure to deal with the challenges facing Humanity.

Similarly, many believe that it is inadequate to apply conventional logic of "state

security" to non-consolidated state entities, or in cases when the "State” itself is

perceived as the main source of insecurity for its people. In fact, in many instances, the

internal environment is far more unstable, or Hobbesian, than the international one,

reducing some States to the condition of "non-States": the notions of "Failed State”,

“Fragile State” and “State in Collapse" describe that type of situation.

This implies, naturally, a substantive alteration of the reference of security: «When

human rights and the environment are protected, the lives and identities of people tend

to be safe; when they are not protected, people are not safe, independently of the

military capability of the State where they live» (Klare & Thomas 1994: 3-4). Thus, the

State is no longer viewed as the only or even the major reference of security, and the

security of individuals and communities gain relevance. Ken Booth (1991) - who calls

himself an ex-realist, anti-realist, and post-realist and advocates an "utopian realism" -

admits the possibility of a redesign of security around a global civil society and a

community of global communities, with both local and universal issues: that is,

“populations”, more so than States, must be the reference of security. Variations of this

perspective point to human collectivities (Buzan, 1991), society (Waever, 1997), the

community (Alagappa, 1998), individuals (Alkire, 2003) or Humanity (Commission on

Human Security) as the reference of security.

Furthermore, the traditional differentiation between “internal” and “external” security

dimensions is clearly diluted. Even authors of the "realist school", like B. Buzan (1991:

363), wisely recognize the limits of that traditional dichotomy: «Though the term

'national security' suggests an occurrence at State level, the connection between that

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level and the individual, regional, and systemic levels are too numerous and powerful

to be denied...the concept of security so strictly connects those levels and sectors that

it demands to be treated through an integrated perspective». In fact, it seems evident

that «security threats are not confined to national borders, they are interrelated and

must be dealt with at the national, intra-State, regional, and international levels»

(Tomé, 2007: 18).

On the other hand, it became clear that security, economic development, and human

freedom are inseparable. Along this line, Dietrich Fisher (1993), for example,

distinguishes between object of danger (survival, health, economic well-being, liveable

environment, and political rights), geographic source of dangers (internal, external, and

global), and human sources or natural sources of dangers (intentional threat, non-

intentional dangers of human nature, natural risks) to arrive at the conclusion that the

main non-military dangers are environmental decline, underdevelopment,

overpopulation, violation of political rights, and ideological nationalism. Likewise, B.

Buzan (1991: 19-20) highlights five domains that are intricately related: military

security, political security, economic security, societal security, and environmental

security.

Economic security was the first of those non-military domains to deserve the attention

of researchers, strategists, and politicians, in particular, following the 1973 oil crisis. In

spite of that, it was not until the end of the Cold War that the idea that the highest

stakes were moving to the economic arena gained momentum and became

generalized: in face of the increase in economic interdependence and the need to

guarantee conditions for economic development and access to supply and outflow

markets and their routes, economic and energy security became crucial dimensions of

security.

More recently, the environment has equally become associated with security. «The

process of environmental degradation», Al Gore (1990: 60) stated two decades ago,

«threatens not only the quality of life, but life itself. The global environment became,

then, a matter of national security». A sign of the times, Al Gore and the

Intergovernmental Panel on Climatic Change of the UN were awarded the Nobel Prize

for Peace, in 2007.

There are many other aspects that have been included in the security agenda, albeit

with different degrees of controversy and/or acceptance. For instance, while the

inclusion of human rights, natural disasters, and infectious diseases is relatively

controversial, terrorism is mentioned in virtually all contemporary literature on security,

as do maritime piracy, transnational organized crime, cyber attacks, and biologic,

bacteriologic, and radiological issues. No wonder, then, that Simon Dalby (2006) made

more reference to the "geopolitics of global dangers" than to the competition among

superpowers or territorial disputes, while Hartmann et al. (2005) highlighted a new

agenda for security in the "era of terror" and "bio-anxiety."

The fact is that, ever more frequently, we come across proposals that invert the

hierarchy of high and low politics and place non-conventional issues at the top of the

security agenda. This gives rise to the additional problem of militarization of non-

military dimensions of security: in other words, the securitization of certain issues

traditionally associated with low politics (that is, the discursive assumption that certain

problems threaten "national and/or international security", elevating and giving them a

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relevance never before achieved) could fuel a tendency to address and resolve them

through traditional means of high politics, giving priority to military intervention and

raising (in)security at other levels (Dannreuther, 2007: 42-44). In the same way, the

non-securitization of some "traditional" threats (discounting or downplaying their

significance) may lead to a breach between reality and the magnitude of the threat, by

underestimating it.

The enlargement of the security agenda and the multiplication of "new dimensions"

give rise to a much greater assortment in terms of security instruments, well beyond

those of military nature, ranging from help to development to new judicial and financial

regimens, from diplomacy to the advancement of human rights or the strengthening of

the Rule of Law. Besides, other than States, there are clearly many more players

involved who may either be threats (terrorist groups or criminal associations) or

promoters of security (from international organizations to NGOs).

All this means that the realistic vision and the "traditional" approach to security have

been questioned in their fundamental aspects: the State as exclusive actor and single

security reference; threats, primarily external, intentional, and military; almost

exclusive military instruments; the clear distinction between internal and external

aspects (Brandão, 1999: 173). As a result, the debate around the broadening and

deepening of the concept of security has intensified and we have witnessed its

"expansion" in four fundamental directions, as stressed by Emma Rothchild (1995:55):

"downward extension", that is, from the security of the States to that of groups and

individuals; "upward extension", from national security to security at much broader

levels, such as the environment/biosphere or Humanity; "horizontal extension",

switching from military security to political, economic, social, environmental or human

security; and "multi-directional security", from the States to the international

institutions, local and regional governments, non-governmental organizations, as well

as public opinion, the media, and abstract forces of nature or markets.

This has resulted in broader security concepts and measures, of which comprehensive

security, world/global security, and human security stand out.

The concept of comprehensive security appeared in the late 70s and early 80s, initially

developed by Japan - as part of the redesign of the "Yoshida Doctrine" and the concept

of economic security. Later, other countries and organizations, such as Canada, the

Association of the Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and even the United Nations,

adopted it. "Comprehensive security" underlines the multi-dimensional and multi-

instrumental character of security, and shifts the focus from political-military disputes

to a myriad of economic, social, and environmental concerns. At the same time, it

concentrates on non-military instruments, such as development assistance, economic

cooperation, or international institutions. Besides, according to promoters of

"comprehensive security", the recognition of multiple dimensions and the cooperative

development of multiple instruments may contribute to minimize tensions between

traditional antagonists and to increase the security of all. G. Evans (1993), however,

contends the greatest weakness in this concept is that is so inclusive and ambiguous

that it loses much of its descriptive capacity and, on the other hand, it becomes

hostage of the overestimation of international cooperation.

Other concepts that are currently gaining support include global security and world

security, both of which mean more or less the same. In its report "Our Global

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Neighbourhood" the Commission on Global Governance expressly prefers the term

"global security: «Global security must be broadened from its traditional focus on the

security of states to include the security of people and the planet» (1995, Chapt. III,

Promoting Security). Similarly, Gwyn Prins (1994: 7) supports the urgency of a "global

security" because Humanity is connected through a new "community of vulnerabilities".

Along the same lines, Seymon Brown (1994) invokes the concept of "world interests" to

reconcile national, international, and sub-national interests.

The most controversial approach, however, is that of human security. This concept

often appears associated with the 1994 UNDP Human Development Report, though its

ground-concept was developed much earlier: In June of 1945, in reference to the

results of the San Francisco conference, the USA Secretary of State already reported

that «The battle of peace has to be fought on two fronts. The first is the security front

where victory spells freedom from fear. The second is the economic and social front

where victory means freedom from want. Only victory on both fronts can assure the

world of an enduring peace…» (cit in UNDP, 1994: 3). Therefore, the presumption of

human security is to free all Humanity from fear and violence (freedom from fear) and

poverty, and deprivation (fear from want). Accordingly, «Human security is not a

concern with weapons – it is a concern with human life and dignity» (ibid: 22).

This concept has been recurrently used, albeit with different characteristics and

definitions.2 Its own proponents differ regarding what threats, or fundamental threats,

individuals must be protected against: the more strict concept focuses on internal

violence exercised by governments or politically organized groups against communities

or individuals; a more inclusive concept, however, considers that hunger, disease, and

natural disasters must also be included. In turn, its critics point to an excessively vague

nature, its ambiguity and incoherence, and even its arbitrary nature and inadequacy.

Roland Paris (2001: 93-96) is particularly fierce in his criticism: «if human security

means almost everything, then, in effect, it means nothing (...) the ambiguity of the

term serves one particular purpose: it unites a diverse, and often divided, coalition of

States and organizations which "seek an opportunity to achieve some more substantial

political interest and greater financial means" (...) Human security does not appear to

offer a particularly useful analytical framework, either in academic or in political

terms».

Independently of this controversy, countries like Canada, Norway, or Japan

incorporated this approach in their security and foreign policies, in an attempt to

implement it. Likewise, international institutions such as the World Bank, the OECD, the

ASEAN, and the UN also adopted it as a reference to their activities. In reality, the idea

that the first goal of security is the protection of individuals and communities is enough

to cause reasonable changes: indeed, the traditional framework which explains and

tries to avoid war, or promote peace, among States is clearly insufficient and irrelevant

to deal with the new dangers and transnational concerns, violent conflicts within States,

or to protect individuals or groups from certain attacks or tragedies (Tomé, 2007: 18).

Therefore, human security is associated with controversial principles that emerged in

2 One of the most influential is that of the Commission on Human Security (2003: 4): «Human security

means protecting fundamental freedoms — freedoms that are the essence of life. It means protecting

people from critical (severe) and pervasive (widespread) threats and situations. It means using processes

that build on people’s strengths and aspirations. It means creating political, social, environmental,

economic, military and cultural systems that together give people the building blocks of survival,

livelihood and dignity».

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the international security panorama over the last years, such as "humanitarian

intervention" or the "Responsibility to Protect", the latter formally adopted at the UN

World Summit, in September 2005, as part of that Organization's reform.

Another perspective that has gained recognition in theoretical-conceptual debates and

political thought is the so-called critical security, which shares and impacts the vision of

human security with an anti-State and anti-realist theory. This approach is also

particularly sceptical regarding the impact of international liberalism in the security

agenda, going as far as to call it "subversive" or "subservient". Karlos Pérez de Armiño

(2009: 8), for instance, states that «it has been noticed a certain co-optation and

distortion of the concept of human security by western countries, with the purpose of

placing it at the service of their foreign policies». Additionally, José Manuel Pureza

(2009), stresses «the ambition to bring the fight against fear and deprivation into

security priorities did not result in substantial changes in international power relations,

and has served fundamentally as a point of support (one more) to the discipline of the

turbulent periphery by the restless centre». The roots of neo-Marxist tradition in the

critical theory of security are clear, but the fact is that, like all other main areas, the

field of Critical Security Studies is wide and heterogeneous, and encompasses diverse

tendencies, from Feminism, to Marxism-Leninism, and to Anarchism. The uniting factor

in such originally distinct theories is their vision and common commitment to a

«“critical” rather than a “problem-solving” approach to IR» (Danneuther, 2007: 49). In

other words, the “critical vision" seeks to differ in the way it identifies the root of

security problems, and how it proposes to substantially alter the situation it condemns.

It attempts to "undo" conventional discourses and, in some cases, "invalidate" them to

re(focus) attention on human condition and its emancipation. It employs an approach

that relegates the interests of States, of the "centre" and the “powerful”, to second

place, in favor of individuals, "peripheries", and the “underprivileged”.

2. An operational concept of Security

Clearly, Security is one of the most ambiguous, debated, and contested ideas in the

overall conceptual framework of international relations. Concepts evolve with time and

change according to circumstances, which, in effect, make it imperative to redefine the

concept of security. The effort to conceptualise security and to accommodate the great

complexity and diversity of its fundamental elements with impartiality, while preserving

its analytical and operational usefulness, is a complex and delicate exercise.

Nevertheless, we attempt to do it, based on six major premises:

1) Communities are the references of security;

2) Well being and political survival, considered from a relatively broad but discerning

perspective, are the fundamental interests and values of security;

3) Threats and concerns relative to the security of communities do not come only from

other States. They may also originate within the States and non-state actors;

4) Competition, cooperation, and the building of communities are equally relevant and

may coexist concurrently;

5) The emphasis or priority granted to each dimension/concern/threat, and to each

instrument of security, may vary from community to community;

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6) The generic concept of security must be abstract, inclusive, and cautious to

reconcile complexity, diversity, and change and to allow different levels.

Thus, security means the protection and promotion of values and interests considered

as vital for the political survival and well being of the community. The closer the

community is to the absence of concerns of political, economic, and military nature, the

more safeguarded its security is.

Having the community as reference means that the object of security may be a State,

an ethnic group, a transnational group or an international association, while

accommodating the problematic nature of States and the existence of other security

references "within" the States and/or “above” the States. At the same time, assuming

political survival and well being as vital values and interests, allows the broadening and

deepening of security beyond traditional dimensions, in a sufficiently inclusive and

flexible manner, in terms of its content, threats/risks, and instruments.

Concerns over political survival or well being may, independently or simultaneously, be

the fundamental interests communities can ensure, though not necessarily with the

same priority, in the same manner, at the same level, or in face of the same concerns:

North Korea, Kurds, Palestinians, Iceland, Angola, or the EU, will certainly consider

both their survival and their well being in vary different ways. Again, if the State is for

some the greatest reference of security, for others it constitutes the major source of

insecurity, while for others the major reference is not the State, but rather their ethnic

or religious group, or the political elite.

Moreover, if there is a crucial problematic of political survival or of well being, it may

not simply result from the conflict of material interests (such as territory, resources,

etc.) but arise, primarily or equally, from considerations and perceptions of identity,

either of ideological nature of historical and cultural heritage. Such problems and

perceptions occur also in very distinct contexts of rivalry, conflict, involvement, and

cooperation, which are dynamic and evolving.

Similarly, the safeguard and/or promotion of political survival and well being may imply

the orchestration of military panoply but, complementary or independently, may favour

internal or international normative/legal frameworks, diplomacy, politics, commerce

and economy, or social-cultural aspects and others. Again, it depends on the specific

community and circumstances. Accordingly, in the concept we propose, at the same

time that political survival and well being limit the spectrum of security (in order to

pose a security problem, a concern must, somehow, question values and interests

considered to be vital) they are also sufficiently inclusive and flexible to allow a great

variety of potential real situations. In similar fashion, the idea of community that

emerges in our concept of security not only allows encompassing several levels (infra-

state, state, and multinational), but also selecting those communities which may be

more relevant and pertinent in terms of the security agenda and of the system, or

security complex, under analysis. The same may be said regarding military, political,

and economic concerns, since they can only be included in the operational concept of

security depending on their relevance to the protection and promotion of interests and

values considered vital to the political survival and well-being of the communities in

question: of course, there are security concerns that do not threaten basic levels of

security of populations, States, or regions; otherwise, we would be inviting a

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tremendous array of potential communities and concerns that, in fact, are not of equal

relevance.

3. Systems of International Security

A distinct, although related, debate concerns the characterization of "systems of

international security". There are also very different perspectives and proposals on this

topic. For instance, while Muthiah Alagappa (1998: 54-56) described three types of

security systems he considers "pure" - competitive security, collective security, and

security community -, Raymo Vayren (1999) listed three different "perspectives" on

international security: common, cooperative, and collective. Patrick Morgan (1997),

however, identifies five "ideal types" of systems, or multilateral forms of conflict

management: power restraining power; alignment agreement of major powers;

collective security, pluralist community of security, and integration. In turn, Brian Job

(1997) goes further to subdivide the first into balance of power and collective defence,

while Gareth Evans (1993) maintains that common security, collective security, and

comprehensive security are different forms of cooperative security. Particular relevance

is, then, placed on concepts centred on competitive security, common security,

cooperative security, collective security, and security community.

In the traditional perspective, clearly inspired by realism, the international security

system is competitive by nature, rooted in self-defence/security of States in an

environment of conflict. In the perceived anarchical international structure, without

any superior authority to guarantee survival and mistrusting and fearing the ambition

of others, each State faces its own security as its main concern and assumes

responsibility for self-defence and self-security, in a traditional Hobbesian challenge of

order and competitive security. Even so, there are differences between the so-called

"offensive realism" and "defensive realism". John Mearsheimer, one of the most

distinguished authors of the "offensive" position, argues that «States are always

prepared to think offensively toward other States» (2001: 34). Kenneth Waltz (2001)

stresses a different viewpoint: States are not simply driven by “maximization of

power”, but also by maintaining their positions in the system and consolidating the

balance of power which, in the logic of “relative gains”, may be a source of international

stability.

The competitive nature of the system, however, does not erase the possibility of

cooperation among States on security and defence, or even the feasibility of a relative

"international order". It is within this framework that realism finds comfort in the

theories of collective defence (several States, confronted with a common threat from

another State or coalition, unite to consolidate their respective capabilities and better

defend themselves as a group, dissuade, or defeat the enemy/adversary), of balance of

power (stressing the permanent play of weight, counter-weight, and/or compensation,

primarily among the great powers), and of hegemony (stressing not only the ambitions

and attitudes of the great powers constantly seeking maximization of power, but also

the capabilities and potentialities/vulnerabilities of hegemonic power, which may be the

determining factor in achieving greater or lesser stability in the inherent system of

competitive security).

The common security approach gained some emphasis following the report "Common

Security: A Programme for Disarmament” by the Palme Commission (Independent

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Commission on Disarmament and Security Issues), in 1982, amidst the tense Cold War

context. Emphasizing the risks of escalation and the risks and limitations of unilateral

initiatives, the Commission called for a common compromise for survival and security

that would accommodate the legitimate interests of "others" as well as "ours". The

argument is that security must be reached with others, not against them: hence such

recommendations, like the creation of nuclear weapon free zones, mutual control of

strategic defence of space, disarmament of superpowers and their respective 'blocks" of

collective defence, and the strengthening of the United Nations and regional

organizations. For Gareth Evans (1993), the positive aspect of this idea, as defined by

the Palme Commission, is that it emphasizes common survival through security with

"the other side". However, he points out that a great deal of the debates over common

security has focused on aspects of military security and that is only one of many fronts

in a more inclusive cooperative security.

The cooperative security became very popular in Europe as a result of the 1975

Helsinki Accords and, primarily, since the end of the Cold War. Cooperative security,

however, has been defined and applied in different ways, although always based on the

premise that, in order to be respected, security cannot be imposed or reached by one

group on another and must be based on common institutions and norms. As a rule,

cooperative security is perceived as a regimen which prevents and manages conflicts in

a certain established framework of norms and procedures which imply accommodating

rival (or potentially rival) interests and politics to maintain a stable international order

under the leadership of the great powers (Vayryen, 1999: 57-58).

Muthiah Alagappa (1998: 53-54) further ascertains that relational identity in

cooperative security is not a negative thing or, if it is, it is only to a very small degree

and may, actually, be positive: States may be sceptic and distrustful of one another,

but there is not a perception of immediate threat. Gareth Evans (1993) presents a

rather broad concept of cooperative security that includes several forms of common

security, collective security, and comprehensive security. In this author's view, the

main virtue of cooperative security is that it provides a broad range of responses to

questions of security: the essence of cooperative security is based on the fact it

emphasizes cooperation over competition3. David Dewitt (1994) shares an equally

broad concept of cooperative security, and includes in it the idea of comprehensive

security, competitive security, as well as the balance of powers and alliances.

Regarding collective security, G. Evans defines it as being inherently focused on

military issues, incorporating the idea that all members renounce the use of force

among them and agree to promptly assist any other member that may come under

attack. Collective security is, in this light, the corollary of common security, «the last

guarantee that the process will not stray from the course as the result of individual

aggressive behaviour by any State - or that if it does, the reaction will alter it» (Evans,

1993: 15-16). Likewise, in Vayryen's view, the purpose of collective security is to

3 G. Evans (1993) describes cooperative security as: 1) multidimensional in amplitude and gradual in

temper; 2) more inclusive than exclusive; 3) places more emphasis on the assurance of security than on

dissuasion; 4) it is not restrictive in terms of membership; 5) favors a multilateral approach over a

bilateral one; 6) does not favor military solutions over non-military ones; 7) It assumes that all States are

primary players in the security system while accepting that non-state players may have an important

role; 8) Does not request the creation of formal security institutions, though, naturally, it does not reject

them; 9) and, above all, it stresses the value of creating "dialogue habits" based on a multilateral

approach.

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create a virtual international coalition that will deter potential aggressors and, if

necessary, punish them through the use of force, but without prior definition of the

aggressor or the victim. It is anchored, primarily, on the premise of maintaining the

status quo by representing and mobilizing the international society, and calling for a

vast legitimate and representative measure of collective action. Therefore, a system of

this type requires «an established framework of institutions, norms, and procedures

that are helpful in mobilizing international response when necessary» (Vayryen, 1999:

59).

Brian Job, on the other hand, stresses the difference between collective security and

pluralist security society. The former refers to a compromise of the type "all-for-one"

among members in order to act, automatically and in synchrony, to assist a member

State under threat or attack by another State. According to this author, collective

security mechanisms, unlike collective defence, are not motivated by the need to plan

or act against a perceived external threat, that is, a State excluded from the group. In

this context the dilemma of security among members is attenuated, as there is not an

immediate, or clearly identified, threat. Thus, collective security frameworks have a

tendency to have a large range of participants, as they are designed to accommodate a

large common denominator in terms of attitudes and compromises. Their success

depends a lot on the degree of involvement and commitment of the most powerful

members of the group (Job, 1997: 172-173).

In Job's perspective, a higher level of cooperation is that of the pluralistic community of

security, where there is a deeper, and qualitatively higher, level of multilateralism and

institutionalism and where membership is more restrictive and very regulated. This

happens because the pluralist community of security presupposes the mutual

identification and identity development among participants, which is necessary to

materialize and sustain the principle of diffuse reciprocity on a long-term basis. More

importantly, the distinctive character of the security community is «the cognitive

transition that occurs among States, and which, in principle, does not encourage or fear

force as a means of interaction among themselves» (Job, 1997: 174-175). In M.

Alagappa's view, also, the "community of security" is deeper than cooperative security,

since it is more demanding in its premises and has a greater potential for preventing

the emergence of new disputes: «In a community security system, national identity

and national interest become fused with those of a larger community of states» (1998:

55). Therefore, there is no exception to the use of force among members of the

community and it becomes illegitimate as an instrument of politics among the States

that form it: in this perspective, security is collective by definition.

4. The notion of Security Complex

It is important to ascertain whether any, and if so which, of the aforementioned

systems characterizes, on its own, the world reality, or that of specific macro-regions,

in an exclusive logic: in our view, not one but several of those systems may be

identified and overlap in the same international or regional framework, which justifies

the reference to a security complex. On the other hand, independently of the favoured

concept to characterize a certain framework, in a specific space and time, a security

system is only one of several in existence; it interacts with other systems and other

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units in a dynamic network of direct and indirect effects on the framework of

relationships reflected in the security environment.

Thus, the security complex may be understood as a system of security systems. More

specifically, the security complex is a network of linear and non-linear relationships

among multiple components and of interactions among several systems of security at

different levels, and of different dimensions, from which result certain patterns in

connections, structures, and behaviours that, in turn, interact with the internal and

external environments of that security network.

The concept of security complex is associated with the study and theories of complex

systems. It is a scientific field that permeates all areas of knowledge and which, in

short, focuses on «how parts of a system produce collective behaviours of the system

and how the system interacts with its environment» (New England Complex Systems

Institute – NECSI). There are five main ideas that are fundamental to the

understanding of the concept of systems complex and, therefore, of security complex:

system, pattern, network, scale, and linearity.

Naturally, the most important is the concept of system, inasmuch as we started by

defining "complex" as a "system of systems". According to Yaneer Bar-Yam (s/d) "a

system is the outlined portion of the universe which is separated from the rest by an

imaginary border... the key concept of ‘system’ is that, once it is identified, it

describes: the system’s properties, the properties of the universe beyond the system

which affect the system, the interactions/relationships among the parts of the system,

and between these components and the universe." The system is not isolated from the

environment; rather, it interacts with the environment. In some cases, it may be useful

to isolate the system. In other cases, one first focuses on the interactions/relationships.

Often, the identification of a certain security system stems from delimiting a certain

geographic space and focusing on the characteristics of interactions and/or how they

change. However, it is also possible to identify systems in a way that does not

correspond to spatial division: for instance, we may consider an economic system in

face of other systems (cultural, political, institutional, etc.) and downplay spatial

aspects.

Pattern corresponds, in short, to the idea of repetition - of structures, ideas,

behaviours, or, in ultimately, of systems within a broader collection of systems. One

simple way to understand a pattern is to detect repetition of behaviours or relationships

But we may also think of the pattern in terms of quantity and quality of repetitions: the

more often and coincidental those repetitions are the more solid or clear a particular

pattern is. Therefore, identifying patterns of security, understanding how they

interrelate, and observing their effects upon the group of systems, help us determine

the character of a certain security complex.

The network is the sum of connections that allow interactions and influences among the

parts (units and sub-systems) of the system complex. Sometimes, the designation of

network expresses, in itself, a system in its whole, considering the effects of these

connections. There are, obviously, many types of networks, but a fundamental aspect

to understand is that the parts are directly or indirectly connected among themselves;

subsequently, each network connection can be characterized by vectors such as force,

influence, substance, motivation, capacity, etc...Potentially, all networks have influence

over the interconnected components, other networks, and the network complex as a

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whole. The study and explanation of a security complex in a given region or in the

world involves, then, setting up networks amidst networks and players which implies

not only identifying the different networks and units, but also observing their effects

and establishing which behaviours and influences are common or different in the

multiple connections.

Scale refers both to the size of the complex under study and the scope of the impact of

units, networks, patterns, and systems, as well as the influence of the complex of

systems itself. In both instances - size and range of influence - a security complex

interconnects security of different scales, from intra-State levels to global security.

Scale is important both for purposes of definition and delimitation of the security

complex itself, and for measuring mutual impact at different levels. For that reason, all

other scales must be considered.

Finally, linearity is a recurring aspect in relationships of cause-and-effect. The concept

of linear relationship suggests that «two quantities are proportional between

themselves: if you double one, you must also double the other» (Bar-Yam, s/d). Linear

relationships are, in many cases, the first approach used to describe international

relations, despite the fact that there is not a single way to define what a linear

relationship is in terms of "content": for example, a linear relationship of historical

association and identity elements between the Popular Republic of China and Taiwan is

necessarily different from a linear relationship in an economic or political and diplomatic

perspective between the same countries. The problem is that, even taking into account

a great variety of linear relations, it is still very far from characterizing a system, and

even further from characterizing a complex system. Therefore, it is necessary to

consider, equally, the non-linear relationships, which are understood, simply, as those

which are not linear and greatly amplify the potential scope of causalities and

dependencies. Often, problems are very difficult to understand and resolve because the

relationships between causes and effects are not easy to establish: alterations in a

system 'here" have frequent consequences in a system "there", since the parts and

systems are interdependent. In other words, returning to the prior example, the

relationship between the PR China and Taiwan results from many sorts of relations

between the two, but at the same time, it also reflects and helps to stipulate

relationships, at different levels, between either country and the USA and other players

in Asia-Pacific and around the world. This means that the security complex is made up

of, and to some extent results from, the sum and convergence of linear and non-linear

relations with repercussions in the domain of security.

Conclusions

The concept of security proposed in this paper - meaning the protection and promotion

of values and interests considered to be vital to the well-being and political survival of

the community, and considering that the closer the community is to the absence of

concerns of political, economic, and military nature, the more safeguarded its security

is may, admittedly, be the focus of criticisms and objections: open to abuses;

subjective and ambiguous; problematic in terms of "theoretical placement" and identity

of research agenda. However, any concept of security slightly more inclusive is virtually

exposed to criticism, and we cannot allow that to dissuade us from introducing what we

consider to be an operational concept. On the other hand, restricting a concept for the

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sake of great simplification would risk making it less adequate to reality, as we would

be forced, a priori, to consider exclusions independently of specific situations.

Consequently, and in the face of the need to make an option, we decided to pursue a

more open, inclusive, and flexible approach, in order to consider all the possibilities of

the highly complex and contested concept of security.

Moreover, the purpose of defining a concept is to indicate its essence and its

fundamental limits, and it must be the measured according to its applicability to

problem solving. In our view, the approach we propose expands and deepens the

concept of security without making it excessively inclusive, as it establishes important

parameters in terms of reference (community) and core values (political survival and

well-being); it does not restrict, a priori, the range of possibilities of interconnections

and the multiplicity of its vital parts; it permits to involve/ characterize different types

of concepts, divided in function of the reference and nature of threats, of instruments

and concerns; and it simplifies comparative analysis among different theoretical-

conceptual hypotheses, and between the latter the specific reality of security. At the

same time, it permits evaluating the most significant aspects and, if necessary,

establishes new interconnections.

Regarding the concept of "security complex" - defined as a system of systems and a

network of linear relationships among multiple parts, a system of interactions among

several systems of security, at different scales and dimensions, which result in several

patterns in connections, structures, and behaviours that, in turn, interact with the

internal and external environments of that security network - they clearly overlap the

multiple characterizations of the systems of security. In a specific space/dimension

where many and different units and systems interact, the impact is not only a certain

international/regional "order", but also a certain security complex, which eventually

comprises, simultaneously, elements of competitive security, collective security,

cooperative security, and security community. And, in fact, taking into account the

current international reality as a whole, there is not a system, but rather a complex of

systems of security.

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